Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System

district Analysis of the Himalayan kettle of fish SystemChapter- 4ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTALVARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND alpine ECOSYSTEMSGlobal modify/ enhanced greenmenage set and the loss of biodiversity argon the major environmental issues around the bea. The greatest stop of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many an divergent(prenominal) cases leave behind favourable conditions for urine supply ascribable to orographic eachy enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists atomic number 18 examining ancient time finishs of extreme loosen upth, such as the Miocene climatical optimum of about 14.5-17 meg old age past. Fossil floral and faunal evidences assign that this was the warmest time of the departed 35 million geezerhood a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C richlyer than the in out-of-pocket unitary. umteen workers believe that gamy speed of light copy dioxide directs, in gang with oceanog raphic cumberings, ca utilise Miocene globose warming by the green ho intake act. Pagani et al. (1999) p resent evidence for amazingly pocket-sized atomic number 6 dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by glitz throughout the wee to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded that green house warming by vitamin C dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and early(a) weapon must find had a greater solve. deoxycytidine monophosphate dioxide is a mark gas in the Earths nimbus, which ex diversitys surrounded by ampere-second reservoirs in occurrencely the oceans and the biosphere. thence atmosphericalalal submergence shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric preoccupation has augmentd. The 1974 flirt with ducking of atmospheric carbonic acid gas was about 330 seaw every(prenominal) counterspy-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is tant tally(predicate) to 2574 x 1015 g carbon dioxide 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the fortune of the disseminatewave. This value is signifi finishtly higher(prenominal) than the add in concert of atmospheric carbonic acid gas in 1860 that was about 290 groin seawall-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). dead metres of the atmospheric carbonic acid gas concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, howdy (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere has cosmetic surgeryn since 1958, from 315 mbulwark groin-1 to or so 360 315 m break urinee mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other(a) measurings that began much recently, it is clear that the impersonate rate of carbon dioxide extend clasps among 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the load of warming is app bent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climat ic kitchen-gardening sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the inwrought variability of mode of visual senses over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive semipermanent data on carbonic acid gas levels atomic number 18 available. The spending of CO2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g ironic primitive social function/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land be generally ascribable to the exchange of CO2 amidst specify and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963 Baumgartner, 1969). The subroutine in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the financial backing plant hearty is balanced by a corresponding end produce of CO2 during respiration of the places themselves and from decay of extreme material, which occurs mainly in the fault through the natural action of bacteria ( fil skimp yess respiration). The release of CO2 from the alter depends on the casing, structure, wet and temperature of the terra firma. The CO2 concentration in brand can be 1000 times higher than in logical argument (Enoch and rabbitberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 circumscribe on give level be burdened. extravagantly mountain ecosystems ar considered under fire(predicate) to mode change (Beniston, 1994 Grabherr et al., 1995 Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European the Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual borderline temperatures during the twentieth carbon, with a marked rise since the proto(prenominal) 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noniced (Grabherr et al., 1994 Pauli et al., 2001), association root word has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and channelize statement species gull responded to clime warming by invasion of the alpine regularise or change mag nitude produce rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is usually affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967 Spence, 1989 Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonisation and the distri neverthelession of individual(a) plant species on the slopes be little the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the encourage of plant communities in receipt to the swallow of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the stoppage 1958- 1984. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to to a greater extent than recent glacial retreat by conducting field look in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link among ice retreat and colonization draw limiting the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global modality warming and its geoecological consequences powerfully urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The essential extremumal tree limit is often assumed to re pitch an ideal primaeval warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and subjectally eve to quite lowly climate fluctuations. some(prenominal) field studies in discordent split of the world ease up that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) akin(predicate)ly reported upward break of species in Garhwal Himalaya.The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its strange crescent shape, high orography, change lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is earlier of young geological age through the shiver material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a big terrain covering the labor unionern boundary of India, built-in Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stint from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers impart conceived four zones in the Himalaya crosswise its long axis. From southmost to north, these atomic number 18 (i) the sub-Himalaya, comp lift low hill ranges of Siwalik, not salary increase preceding(prenominal) 1,000 m in elevated (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a serial of mountain ranges not rising above cd0 m in superlative (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m in altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orographic zones of the Himalaya ar not stringently broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have vie a constitute role in varied orographic attainments of various zones. Their conceived boundaries do not in sum coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a cock-a-hoop number of parameters of versatile nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse that cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989). turd is ind intimatelying for the act existence of animateness on the planet. malicious gossip takes thousands of years to form and solitary(prenominal) few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other guinea pigs of improper management. It is a three dimensional organic structure consisting of solid, liquid and volatilised phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of positive fertiliser subject has become capable in securing and rearing plants. sustentation organisms and the trans governing body they consummate have a pro imbed depression on the ability of turds to render food and fiber for expanding world population. skanks are used to produce crops, range and timber. grime is basic to our survi val and it is natures waste electric pig medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, wildcats, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, body politic has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. grease continuously recycles plant and animal abides, and they are major support systems for humans manners, determining the plain production capableness of the land (Anthwal, 2004). shite is a natural product of the environment. Native primer forms from the conjure material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and piddle), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land out affects priming coat formation. It is similarly affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the earth. territorial dominion varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have twain stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical paper and sex act residues of sa nd, foul and dust) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include brand moisture and tarnish microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most discolourations resist short-run climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or gravid-scale erosion. Chemical abasement takes place because of depletion of meltable elements through rain irrigate leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground wet or irrigation schemes. It may too be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other lookborne contaminants, as well as by persistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion an d unionion by machinery (Klute, 1986). The describe blot indicators are grain (especially corpse content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water- prop capacity (Anthwal, 2004). defect consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic number ( twain(prenominal) living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different greases throughout the world. priming coat are classified on the al-Qaeda of their parent material, texture, structure, and compose There are five key factors in change formation i) type of parent material ii) climate iii) superimposed vegetation iv) topography or slope and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or obscenity organisms. unitedly climate and vegetation/ demesne organisms often are called the spry factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography wi lithe a certain climatic and vegetative zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material residues are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials. stain structure comprises the somatic constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an consequential soil property in many ashesey, untaught soils. Physical and chemic properties and to a fault the nutrient status of the soil turn spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004).Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes and biological, physical and chemical substance processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can as well as indicate vegetation cha nge, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990).In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin erupt horizons. such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and put pop altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered compose in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanic weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (gaur, 2002).In g eneral, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). put together on miscellaneous samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation amidst soil pH and altitude and argues that abase in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high pelting which facilitated leaching out of atomic number 20 and Magnesium from bulge soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in friction match and poor in Nitrogen confine.However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral limit of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are s bank lacking. donation investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya.4.1. OBSERVATIONSAs far as the recordings of ab iotic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were enter under the portray written report. As these are primal for the present take away.4.1.1. atmospherical Carbon DioxideDiurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were save at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and pass up during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis.In the calendar calendar calendar month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a negligible of 375mol mol-1 to a uttermost of 395mol mol-1. When the determine were averaged for the measurement days the uttermost and borderline value ranged from 378mol mol-1 to 388mol mol-1. A diversity of 20mol mol-1 was found in the midst of t he level best and lower limit value preserve for the measurement days. When the set were averaged, a variation of 10mol mol-1 was ascertained surrounded by level best and lower limit values.During the measurement spot, CO2 concentrations varied from a negligible of 377mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the stripped and maximum values was about 23mol mol-1.In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a nominal of 369mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the negligible and maximum values was about 21mol mol-1.Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a tokenish of 367mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409mol mol-1 during the month of revered. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days , the difference in the negligible and maximum values was about 42mol mol-1.During the measurement period (family), CO2 concentrations varied from a lower limit of 371mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375mol mol-1 to 387mol mol-1 and a difference of 12mol mol-1 was record.During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39mol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days.In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recor ded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of SoilSoil Colour and grainSoils of the read playing field tend to have distinct variations in colourise both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil erudition. It was unyielding chickenhearted cook at the astuteness of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, vague- browned at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and lily-livered brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was greyish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, blueish grey-haired brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2).Soil texture is the relative flock of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the try out electron orbit had high equilibrium of silt followed b y sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category.Soil TemperatureThe soil temperature depends on the centre of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. approach pattern 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active suppuration period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the final during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of terrific at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2.Soil moisture (%)Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. more(prenominal) or less soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Likewise, wet soil overl y doesnt compact well. The entail soil water component (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water theatrical role ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percent was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites. body of water Holding Capacity (WHC)The pie-eyed water championing capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of kinsfolk on hurrying socio-economic class (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower bottom (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC rang ed from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in amphetamine degrees at both the sites of alpine and moraine.Soil pHThe soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2).4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of SoilOrganic Carbon (%) Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper tier of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C reduced with depth and it was last in lower beds at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, art object it was minimum (4.2 %) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost socio-economic class (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively. friction match (%) A low amount of morning star was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 0.01 to 0.07 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.030.01 to 0.030.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost degree (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0 .020.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing curve in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sitesPotassium (%) A decline in super C contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of thousand was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.710.02 to 460.06 at AS1 while it was 0.710.02 to 0.470.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 0.06 to a maximum of 0.590.05 in the MS1 and from 0.590.05 to 0.320.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectivelyNitrogen (%) Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.230.02 to 0.040.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.050.01 to 0.240.02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.030.01, 0.020.04% to a maximum of 120.03, 130.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites.4.2. give-and-takeSoil has a close race with word structure and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphologic process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an self-governing and as dependent variable. In order to analyse the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellation. Many soil properties may be tie in to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999).The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent illumination coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cold (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to br own at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils observe more water. Water requires relatively large amount of heat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter.Soil texture is an all important(p) modifying factor in relation to the pro mountain of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are cogent or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit sight, but permits more rapid infiltration of precipitated water than silt and clay. cor pse tends to increase the water- place capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay.There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) religious service in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plant s. During October, fooling rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less full from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period increases with increase in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The change magnitude temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is deliver the goods only afterward the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at reclaim angle to the cheerfulness would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface.The soil layer water-repellent to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence seizure savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season.The water keeping capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin take on upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water retentivity surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in retain textured soil.Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not tenanted by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air movement is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils.The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at refreshed Hampshire due to reduction in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the similar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. both these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively gnaw at and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of know pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species.Soil properties may chSoil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain SystemSoil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain SystemChapter- 4ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTALVARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMSGlobal warming/ enhanced greenhouse effect and the loss of biodiversity are the major environmental issues around the world. The greatest part of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many cases provide favourable conditions for water supply due to orographically enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists are examining ancient periods of extreme warmth, such as the Miocene climatic optimum of about 14.5-17 million years ago. Fossil floral and faunal evidences indicate that this was the warmest time of the past 35 million years a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C higher than the present one. Many workers believe that high carbon dioxide levels, in combinat ion with oceanographic changes, caused Miocene global warming by the green house effect. Pagani et al. (1999) present evidence for surprisingly low carbon dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by volume throughout the early to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded that green house warming by carbon dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and other mechanism must have had a greater influence.Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the Earths atmosphere, which exchanges between carbon reservoirs in particularly the oceans and the biosphere. Consequently atmospheric concentration shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric concentration has increased. The 1974 mean concentration of atmospheric CO2 was about 330 mol mol-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is equivalent to 2574 x 1015 g CO2 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the mass of the atmosphere. This value is significantly higher than the amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1860 that was about 290 mol mol-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). Precise measurements of the atmospheric CO2 concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen since 1958, from 315 mmol mol-1 to approximately 360 315 mmol mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other measurements that began more recently, it is clear that the present rate of CO2 increase ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the effect of warming is apparent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climatic sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the natural variability of climate of mountains over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive long-term data on CO2 levels are available. The consumption of CO 2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g dry organic matter/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land are mainly due to the exchange of CO2 between vegetation and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963 Baumgartner, 1969). The process in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the living plant material is balanced by a corresponding production of CO2 during respiration of the plants themselves and from decay of organic material, which occurs mainly in the soil through the activity of bacteria (soil respiration). The release of CO2 from the soil depends on the type, structure, moisture and temperature of the soil. The CO2 concentration in soil can be 1000 times higher than in air (Enoch and Dasberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 contents on ground level are resulted.High mountain ecosystems are considered vulnerable to clima te change (Beniston, 1994 Grabherr et al., 1995 Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual minimum temperatures during the twentieth century, with a marked rise since the early 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noticed (Grabherr et al., 1994 Pauli et al., 2001), community composition has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and treeline species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is commonly affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967 Spence, 1989 Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonization and the distribution of individual plant species on the slopes below the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the advance of plant communities in response to the retreat of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the period 1958- 19 84. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to more recent glacial retreat by conducting field research in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link between ice retreat and colonization near the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global climate warming and its geoecological consequences strongly urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The natural elevational tree limit is often assumed to represent an ideal early warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and compositionally even to quite modest climate fluctuations. Several field studies in different parts of the world present that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) also reported upward shifting of species in Garhwal Himalaya.The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its unique crescent shape, high or ography, varied lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is rather of young geological age through the rock material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a vast terrain covering the northern boundary of India, entire Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stretching from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers have conceived four zones in the Himalaya across its long axis. From south to north, these are (i) the sub-Himalaya, comprising low hill ranges of Siwalik, not rising above 1,000 m in altitude (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a series of mountain ranges not rising above 4000 m in altitude (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m in altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orograp hic zones of the Himalaya are not strictly broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have played a key role in varied orographic attainments of different zones. Their conceived boundaries do not also coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a large number of parameters of variable nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse but cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989).Soil is essential for the continued existence of life on the planet. Soil takes thousands of years to form and only few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other types of improper management. It is a three dimensional body consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of organic matter has become capable in securing and supporting plants. Living organisms and the transformation they perform have a profound effect on the ability of soils to provide food and fiber for expanding world population. Soils are used to produce crops, range and timber. Soil is basic to our survival and it is natures waste disposal medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, animals, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, soil has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. Soil continuously recycles plant and animal remains, and they are major support systems for human life, determining the agricultural production capacity of the land (Anthwal, 2004). Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms from the parent material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and water), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the soil. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have both stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical composition and relative proportions of sand, silt and clay) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include soil moisture and soil microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most soils resist short-term climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or large-scale erosion. Chemical degradation takes place because of depletion of soluble elements through rainwater leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground water or irrigation schemes. It may also be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other airborne contaminants, as well as by pe rsistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion and compaction by machinery (Klute, 1986). The key soil indicators are texture (especially clay content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water-holding capacity (Anthwal, 2004).Soil consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter (both living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different soils throughout the world. Soil are classified on the basis of their parent material, texture, structure, and profile There are five key factors in soil formation i) type of parent material ii) climate iii) overlying vegetation iv) topography or slope and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or soil organisms. Together climate and vegetation/soil organisms often are called the active factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography within a certain climatic and vegetati ve zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material differences are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials.Soil structure comprises the physical constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an important soil property in many clayey, agricultural soils. Physical and chemical properties and also the nutrient status of the soil vary spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004).Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes and biological, physical and chemical processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can also indicate vegetation change, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990).In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin surface horizons. Such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and lower altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered profile in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanical weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (Gaur, 2002).In general, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). Based on various samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation between soil pH and altitude and argues that decrease in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high rainfall which facilitated leaching out of Calcium and Magnesium from surface soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in Phosphorus and poor in Nitrogen contents.However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral contents of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are still lacking. Present investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya.4.1. OBSERVATIONSAs far as the recordings of abi otic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were recorded under the present study. As these are important for the present study.4.1.1. Atmospheric Carbon DioxideDiurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were recorded at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and lower during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis.In the month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 375mol mol-1 to a maximum of 395mol mol-1. When the values were averaged for the measurement days the maximum and minimum values ranged from 378mol mol-1 to 388mol mol-1. A difference of 20mol mol-1 was found between the maximum and minimum values recorded for the measurement days. When the values were averaged, a difference of 10mol mol-1 was observed between maximum and minimum values.During the measurement period, CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 377mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 23mol mol-1.In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a minimum of 369mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 21mol mol-1.Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 367mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409mol mol-1 during the month of August. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days, the difference in the minimum and maximum values was about 42mol mol-1.During the measurement period (Septe mber), CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 371mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375mol mol-1 to 387mol mol-1 and a difference of 12mol mol-1 was recorded.During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39mol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days.In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recorded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of SoilSoil Colour and TextureSoils of the study area tend to have distinct variations in colour both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil depth. It was dark yellowish brown at the depth of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, brown at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and yellowish brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was grayish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, dark grayish brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2).Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of silt followed by sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category.Soil TemperatureThe soil temp erature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. Figure 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active growth period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the lowest during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of August at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2.Soil Moisture (%)Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. Some soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Likewise, wet soil also doesnt compact well. The mean soil water percentage (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water percentage ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percentage was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites.Water Holding Capacity (WHC)The mean water holding capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of September on upper layer (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower layer (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC ranged from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in upper layers at both the sites of alpine and moraine.Soil pHThe soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2).4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of SoilOrganic Carbon (%) Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper layer of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C decreased with depth and it was lowest in lower layers at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, while it was minimum (4.2%) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively.Phosphorus (%) A low amount of phosphorus was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 0.01 to 0.07 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.030.01 to 0.030.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0.020.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing trend in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sitesPotassium (%) A decline in potassium contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of potassium was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.710.02 to 460.06 at AS1 while it was 0.710.02 to 0.470.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 0.06 to a maximum of 0.590.05 in the MS1 and from 0.590.05 to 0.320.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectivelyNitrogen (%) Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.230.02 to 0.040.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.050.01 to 0.240 .02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.030.01, 0.020.04% to a maximum of 120.03, 130.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites.4.2. DISCUSSIONSoil has a close relationship with geomorphology and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphological process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an independent and as dependent variable. In order to examine the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellat ion. Many soil properties may be related to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999).The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent lighter coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cooler (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to brown at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils hold more water. Water requires relatively large amount of h eat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter.Soil texture is an important modifying factor in relation to the proportion of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are heavy or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit volume, but permits more rapid percolation of precipitated water than silt and clay. Clay tends to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay.There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) help in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plants. During October, occasional rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less intact from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period increases with in crease in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The increasing temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is attained only after the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at right angle to the Sun would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface.The soil layer impermeable to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season.The water holding capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin fi lm upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water holding surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in moderate textured soil.Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air move ment is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils.The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at New Hampshire due to reductio n in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the similar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. All these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively eroded and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of known pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species.Soil properties may ch